Abu waskiwn ay afalkay

Abu waskiwn ay afalkay

Ma f ar sul tcttat?
Ma f ar sul tssat ?
Yak rad gn ttmi i tudrt nk!
Yak nnan ass n tmttant nk!
Max aylligh tn tujjit
Ad ak gn iskraf
Issudm k wwad
Tawk ttad tadu nk

Abu waskiwn ay afalkay

Ini asn:

Is rad iyi bdda tqqrsm!

Is rad iyi bdda tsdullum!

Abu waskiwn ay afalkay

Gg zund nkk

Tsitti tn iskraf

Tasit asafu

Tinit asn:

Amazigh ad iyi t innan!
Amazigh ad iyi t innan!
Tankra¹ zund tin bu ilmawn gh igr uma3i²
Tarat amzruy nk s waskiwn nk
A bu waskiwn ay afalkay
Ad ak ur gin lhnna ula fkan ak afar nna
Azmz n tssumga³ ur sul illa

Tadrfit ! Tadrfit !

Abu waskiwn ay afalkay.

Agadir ass n 26-12- 2009

1Tagrawla (Révolution, ttawra)

2Yan udwwar gh dcayra tasga n ugadir ittwayssan s bu ilmawn.

3ad ig ufgan ismg i wayyad- esclavage

Mra...

Mra ka gigh

Yat tnfult¹ n ddular
Nghd tin luru
Ula gigh amaziv

Mra gan i wawal inu atig

Mra skarv azal v yid

Rad sisi sawaln

Rad iyi ttghawaln
Rad iyi gn gh ulawn
Rad iyi sakan amadal
Mmrn igh d darsn uckigh
Nnuvjfn igh asn ddigh



Mra ka gigh

Yat tanfult n ddular

Nghd tin lluru
Ula gigh amazigh.



Ayt baha 05- 03- 2009

1 Tawriqt (feuille).

Teacher-Talk : A Sociolinguistic Variable

A Review of an article by Deborah Osborne

A. Summary :

Communicative competence can be generally defined as the ability to use linguistic forms appropriately in any circumstances. Indeed, it consists of four components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. The first one refers to the  ability to produce and understand correct syntactic, lexical and phonological forms in a language. The second one is the ability to use a language appropriately in sociocultural contexts. The discourse competence is defined as the combination of grammatical forms and meaning to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres. Finally, strategic competence refers to strategies to enhance or facilitate communication.

Obviously, it is not sufficient to teach just one of the above components. Teachers of English should encourage their students to develop all these components of communicative competence. Osborne’s article (1999) focuses on the sociolinguistic competence, especially “ language variability and how teachers often deal with it ”  (1999 : 10): one aspect of teaching process that confuses the learners is its inconsistency. That is, teachers teach their students one form of saying something in the classroom, and in a natural setting they hear native speakers use a different version. This phenomenon is called a linguistic variable in linguistics, and its use is sensitive to social contexts, it is termed sociolinguistic variable.

To illustrate the point, Osborne provides the example of “ be going to + infinitive”. This verb tense has two norms or conventions : one   is “the going form”, and the second is “ the gonna form”. The two constitute a linguistic variable, and each occurrence is sensitive to a social  context. For example, “gonna form” is used in informal setting, and more precisely in American culture while the second form that is, “ be + going ” is used by educated people in formal contexts. The second form is well – mastered by so many non-native speakers in comparison to the gonna form. Two reasons are behind this : First it’s due to the difficulty of learning English rhythm, and secondly, it is triggered by the way teachers deliver their language input. Osborne states:

“ When teachers show their rate of speech and enunciate, gonna is impossible to say” ( Osborne 1999 : 11 )

Osborne raises also the issue of teacher talk. It is defined as speech used by teachers, it is more simplified and shorter than normal speech. Teacher talk is characterised by four adjustments occurring at different levels:

1) Lexis: It restricts the diversity of vocabulary by avoiding colloquial expressions and slang words.   
2) Phonological: It is characterised by exaggerated articulation, extended pauses and slower rate of speech.
3) Syntactic: The use of fewer subordinate / embedded clauses and short utterances.
4 Discourse: The dominance of the first person and the use of repetition to make things clear.

Two aspects of teachers talk have been investigated by researchers, that is, the rate of speech and syntactic complexity. According to Osborne, The slow rate of speech do help students to perform well, however, it’s has one drawback. She points out :

The consequence is that without working on the the pronunciation of English ( notably the rhythm ) and exposure to more usual pronunciation of variables,  learners of English learn and retain a relatively formal and sometimes hypercorrect form of  English (1999 : 11 ).

A practical solution, according to Osborne, is to allow students to hear both formal and informal speech, in this case “ gonna ” and “ going to ” forms. At the outset, the formal form is presented with careful pronunciation and students are asked to use it. Next, the teacher introduces the informal form, gonna, and explains its use and constraints. Finally, practice of the reduced form is provided through drills and role – play. In doing so, students are exposed to authentic speech of the natural setting and to teacher talk related to the classroom context.

B. Evaluation:

The article has tackled two related issues in teaching / learning process, namely sociolinguistic competence and teacher talk. Concerning the former, it is believed that the use of appropriate language in an appropriate sociocultural context is highly advisable (                    ). This context can vary according to factors such as status of participants, purposes of the interaction, and norms or conventions of the interactions. Osborne insists on the uses and constraints of both formal and informal form of “ to be going to”.

According to Osborne, students should be exposed to all varieties of English so as to be “ acting more English ” ( P. 12 ). Since there is no unique and pure English, ESL teachers opt for the use of formal English in the classroom setting. From time to time teachers do expose their students to authentic speech through listening to taped-conversations. It’s the teacher’s role thus to make their students aware of the appropriateness of utterances, both in terms of meaning and form. By appropriateness of meaning, it is meant that the extent to which particular communicative functions, attitudes, and ideas are judged to be proper in a given context. The appropriateness of form, on the other hand, concerns the extent to which a given meaning is represented in a verbal or non-verbal form that is related to a particular sociolinguistic situation. It’s important to mention that Osborne has discussed the second one, but she doesn’t deal with meaning. A further remark is that she restricts herself to one example of this phenomenon, that is, “ be going to ” form and “ gonna ” form. The distinction between the two forms doesn’t create problems for the learners, and it doesn’t really hinder the ongoing of communication.

Concerning teacher talk, many researchers have pointed to its effects on students’ learning because it is one important source of language input (Saiz1990:24 ). The common characteristic of teacher talk is simplification which can be defined as the adjustments intended to make utterances easier to understand. Osborne has pointed to one of its negative effects. That is, because of the language classroom, a student retains “hypercorrect” form of English. The effectiveness of teacher talk, however, can not be denied, The effectiveness of teacher talk depends on a variety of factors among which are : The point in the lesson in which talking occurs, and the value of teacher talk itself whether it is useful for acquisition or not. Fontana stipulates:

“ Teachers who can talk interestingly  and relevantly, and who can stimulate children’s imagination and thinking are  for a better aid to learning than any amount of misguided and rather desultory project work.
  “ Fontana : 1981 : 351 ).

Osborne ignores another important aspect in teacher talk, that is, teacher talking ratio. In fact, her  “ practical ” solution encourages teachers to talk too much. But a question may be raised here: Who is in need to talk, students or teachers? The communicative approach has readjusted the balance in the teaching learning process. It is the learner who is encouraged to test his communicative competence through putting it into practice. The teacher’s involvement, especially teacher talk, is kept to the minimum. Indeed, to introduce the formal form and use of  “ be going to ”, and to expose students “ aurally ” to the use and constraints of  “ gonna ” will certainly maximise teacher talking time.

The solution, however, is to let students discover the informal form by themselves in a natural setting or to provide them with authentic materials such as audio-tapes and films that include real-life speech; but without dwelling on the uses and constraints of informal speech as Osborne suggested. The more familiar they are with these materials, the more able they are to understand and use informal speech. Added to this would be the assumption that ESL teachers are guided by many factors, for instance, the programme studied, the level of students and time. Osborne seems to forget these factors that oblige teachers to stick to formal English. In addition, of course, to the fact that formal English is used at an international level. Duff (1997) Contends:

“ ‘ELT English’ could be described as a kind  of ‘dialect’ adopted by ELT and taught as the world auxiliary language. It has, in fact, become what Ogden set out to create artificially with Basic English (1930): an international communication system with no real community of origin outside ELT itself .” (Duff 1997 : 266-267)

C. Conclusion :

Osborne’s article is insightful for teacher trainees who need to master sociolinguistic skills of English in order to expose their students to different varieties. This should be done through bringing authentic conversations to the classroom. In short, listening to audio-tapes and watching English films will make students familiar with both formal and informal speeches. However, teacher talking time should be used appropriately and effectively.  

              

References :

                             

• Duff, T. “Comment : raise high the standard !”. ELT Journal. Vol. 51/3. July 1997.

• Fontana, D. (1981). Psychology for Teachers. London: Macmillan Press LTD.

• Osborne, D. 1999. “Teacher Talk: A Sociolinguistic Variable”. English Teaching Forum. Vol37, N°2, Apr- Jun 1999.

Saiz, M. (1990) “Communication Strategies” English Teaching Form. October 1990. 

INTERNET

Today, the Internet is conceived as the best archive of world information that human kind has at his/her disposal. Indeed, this fact has an impact on education. Students as well as teachers have now access to a huge range of teaching materials that enhances their productivity. However, using the Internet as a source of data has some drawbacks.

            To begin with, the most important advantage of the Internet in the teaching / learning process is its large scope. Technology developments make it possible to receive an endless range of topics and information via the Internet. An infinite range of teaching materials are, thus, available for teachers to use in their classes. Lesson plans, quizzes, games and different class activities are on the Web now. Through using gateways and webrings,  teachers try to find materials designed for ELT. To expand their search, different browsers, directories and search engines are on the Net. Having a clear idea of what a teacher is looking for determines, as Dede Teeler points out, the best tool to use for any search.

            Secondly, the content of the Internet is updated regularly. Teachers are therefore acquainted with new information monthly, weekly or even daily. This topicality of the Net allows teachers to explore teacher development opportunities which are not frequently and easily available to them in any other way. Related to this is the fact that the web provides an access to its materials at any time of the day or night regardless, of course, of location. Most importantly, new publications are daily included, some of them have not yet been printed.

            Finally, another advantage of using the Web as a source of teaching materials is its personalisation. To find alternative subjects and texts that may be relevant to their students’ needs, the easiest and the cheapest way for teachers is the Internet. Textbooks, encyclopaedias and articles may be browsed in order to supply additional information to students as well as to teachers. Added to this is the fact that the Net provides an opportunity to establish links between teachers from different cities and countries, a case in point here is TESL mailing list. The rational behind is to share and exchange information.

            However, the net as a source of teaching materials has some disadvantages. For example, teachers need to adapt materials they have found. Net-based materials should be appropriate to the interests and the grade level of the students. The fact that needs a little time and sacrifice from teacher’s part.   According to Teeler and Gray ( 2000 ), patience, flexibility and lateral thinking are highly required when searching for ELT materials. A further disadvantage is the cost of the Internet. To go to cyberspaces and make photocopies for large groups of students cost a lot. But once Moroccan high schools are equipped with Internet classrooms and Xeroxing machines such problem will certainly fade away.

            In short, though it has some disadvantages, using the Internet as a source of teaching materials is rewarding. Integrating the web’s usefulness into the school curriculum will bring life again into our dull, sterile classrooms. Nevertheless, teachers should not rely uniquely on the net because it does not include everything and its sources are not all reliable.      

Classroom Affective Environment

1-     Affective Filter.

    Krashen (1983) considers the teacher’s talk as an input that can be an intake for the students. He also states that the affective filter controls the quantity of input. Learners with high motivation  and self-confidence and with low-anxiety have low filters and, thereby, obtain and convert plenty of input into intake. By contrast, learners with low motivation, little self-confidence and high anxiety have high filters and, hence, receive little input. Creating an affective environment is of paramount importance in the teaching /learning process. The lower the affective filter, the more intake will take place, and vice versa. Indeed, the use of humor and effective warm-ups are two ways of lowering students’ affective filter.

2. Warm-up  

          The warm-up is an opening activity which is basically meant to motivate the students and to lead them up to what follows. Adolescents as well as children appreciate well some sort of ice-breaking activities. However, teachers should be selective and purposeful in these activities. The latter should also meet the level of students. Peter Renner (1993) gives a piece of advice to teachers : « select your activity (ice breaking) with care. An exercise that works in one gorup may bomb in the next » (p.15). Therefore, teachers’ responsibility to accumulate warm-up activities and try to adapt them for their classroom environment.

3. Use of humor

   

        one aspect of class control and management, according to Fontana, is the use of humour in the classroom. To lower students’ inhibition, the teacher should be humourous. But far from being a clown, teachers should try to help students settled in, create a sense of security, and establish a lively atmosphere. During my teaching practice, I have worked hard on this point. I have never missed an opportunity without joking with my students. That has given them an appetite for learning. One of my students has written me the following note as feedback :

Monsieur le professeur :

« je veux vous dire que vous êtes un excellent professeur et surtout gentil professeur et amusant. En plus je préfère que tu m’enseignes toute la vie. Avec vous nous avons passé de très bons moments. Vous m’avez aimé la langue anglaise.

Merci, merci beaucoup. » (third year ECO student)

Indeed, humour is the strong chain which may relate a teacher ot his students. Joining them in their general laughter whenever suitable is an emblem of  security and group affiliation. Fontana states that « a sense of humour often ranks second only to fairness in child’s list of good teacher qualities »(p.330).

4. teachers’ attitude towards pupils’ errors

One of the most important problems in second language pedagogy is the matter of how and when to correct the errors of pupils. People with a long teaching experience have certainly encountered situations where they have difficulty locating the exact error committed by a student in an essay or in an oral communication. This implies that error is not always something that can be easily spotted. The major problem, however, is how to respond to students’ errors.

Broadly speaking the correction procedure  consists of two types. These are self correction and peer correction. These techniques give opportunities to students to interact with their peers so as to undermine the psychological barrier that blocks effective learning. Students should know that mistakes are not embarrassing but natural steps towards a good control of language. Teachers’ correction should be the last resort. It is worth mentioning that correction of errors depends on whether an activity is accuracy-based or fluency-based. If it is accuracy-based, language errors should be tactfully corrected. But if the activity is fluency-based, errors can be tolerated so long as the message gets across.  

The Translator Between the Text and the Culture

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“No Translator can claim impersonal access to the textual, nor is it possible to translate in a social vacuum.” (Vermeer and Witte, 1990)

Written by: Mohamed Mahou

Translation, a process of rendering the meaning of one language into another, entails an awareness of the culture of these two languages. Indeed, translation does not function in a social vacuum as Vermeer and Witte point out¹. It is actually culture-bound. In order to avoid misunderstandings, translators should resort to an integrated approach and they should be aware of their cultural responsibility. The major aim of the present paper, thus, is to reveal the importance of culture in translation. I will first state some problems faced while translating a text. Then I will focus on the effect of culture on translation and translators. I will finally tackle the cultural responsibility of translators.

1. Problems in Translation

Most of the difficulties encountered in translation are due to the difference between the source language and the target language. When faced with culturally-bound expressions, for example, the translator is usually obliged to add or delete something over what is actually said in the original text. Though the influence is sometimes inevitable², translators must be careful not to transfer idiosyncrasies of the source text into the new text, a factor which will shock the target reader. Claiming an impersonal access to the textual meaning of a translated text is, to be sure, impossible because a good translation always entails frames and framing. According to David Katan, “frames are a combination of prior knowledge, generalizations and expectations regarding the text. As the text is read so it is checked against expectations and degree of fit with other similar known or possible texts.”³ When attempting to reconstruct a text appropriately, translators are likely to face different problems, which may be divided into three categories:

1. Linguistic problems:

They can be subdivided into three kinds of problems: semantic, syntactic and textual. Semantic problems appear when the translator tries to negotiate meanings within the source text. Syntactic problems, on the other hand, arise from differences in the features of arrangement and suprasegmental aspects of the two languages. Differences in cohesion, coherence, punctuation and divisibility of sentences are some textual problems that a translator may encounter when translating a text. Indeed, a contrastive grammar and a comparative of styles would be a great help while dealing with these problems.

2. Pragmatic problems:

They arise when ignoring to check on one of the following extra textual factors: sender, receiver, medium, time, place, motive and text function

3. Cultural Problems:

As it is stated above, translation takes place within a socio-cultural context. Because of the difference between the two cultures, some translators may find it difficult to interpret the norms and conventions of the target culture or they may impose their own cultural values on it. Some strategies are of value when tackling the component of culture in any translation.

2. Dealing with Culture:

Rendering a text in the most appropriate way, translators, or to borrow one of David Katan’s terms mediators, are in need of two processes: decoding and encoding. By decoding it is often meant to dismantle the ideas of the source text whereas the encoding process necessitates finding a new code in the target text. Between the two processes the translator needs to analyze and frame his “grouped linguistic and textual knowledge.”⁴ Indeed, unlike the grammatical model that describes translation focusing on equivalent words, the cultural model takes the cultural aspect of the target text into account. The focus, according to the supporters’ of this model, is extensively on the importance of context. For them, translation is a form of cross-cultural communication.

Doing a cross-cultural translation appropriately depends on the translator’s understanding of the culture s/he is working with. When dealing with idioms, proverbs and metaphors, for instance, the translator has to replace the source text items by those known in the target culture. To illustrate my point, translating some Berber proverbs into English using a literal translation may appear odd to the English audience. Using equivalent English proverbs will surely be more legitimate and safer in this respect. Here are three examples:

1- Berber: Yan ibbi ulgmad ar ti tssiwid tzkirt

Literal Translation: The one bitten by a snake is afraid of ropes.

English equivalent: Once bitten, twice shy.

2- Berber: Imik s imik a sa ikccm uram s ugdur.

Literal translation: Little by little the camel enters the pot

English equivalent: Rome is not built on one day

3- Berber: Wanna yran tammnt isbr i tiqqrst n tizzwa.

Literal translation: The one who wants honey must bear bee stings.

English Equivalent: Every rose has its thorn.

Indeed, doing a cross-cultural translation entails mastering both the source culture and the target one. Being bicultural is one major characteristic of a good translator. The main objectives of translators, thus, are to avoid cultural misunderstandings and to achieve an appreciation of the source text. Resorting to footnotes or endnotes is one technique to be used to meet these goals. For example, when translating some God phrases that abound in Berber language, the translator should explain to the target reader that these phrases are used to express politeness and they reflect Imazighens (Berbers) strong link to Islam. As a very simple example, this God phrase “Ad k irhm rbbi ifqirn” may be translated literally as: “May God bless your old people.” But this translation is a bit awkward because the phrase “old people” (Ifqirn) refers actually to parents, not to the old people in general. So, a good translator should be aware of such cultural aspects of the target language. It is worth mentioning that a translator of the above-mentioned phrase should also use an endnote to stress the situations in which it is used. That is, stating that it is used when asking for a service/ information or when expressing gratitude to someone.

Clearly, a major problem for translators is usually facing non-equivalence. To solve the problem, David Katan suggests using a new model for working cross-culturally. He notes:

I would suggest here that translators, interpreters and others should use the Meta-model themselves to consciously locate the deletions, distortions and generalizations in the source text. Mediators should also be conscious of their own modeling strategy in the production of the target text.⁵

Indeed, finding the implicit and the absent in the source text is the overriding task of a translator. The implicit means what a translator makes explicit in the target text and the absent refers to things or concepts that are absent in the source text, but they are actually present in relation to the general situation which gave rise to the text. David Katan labels this absent with the phrase “the context of culture.” He states:

We mentioned earlier that a translator as cultural interpreter or mediator also needs to account for information that is implicit in the context of culture. We should also consider that the context of culture can be perceived at a number of different levels, from environment (e.g. institutions) to beliefs and values (cultural orientations) and identity. ⁶

Since non-equivalence seems to be a major “predicament” in translation, translators should mainly seek to achieve the communicative function of the target text. This function is achieved through the use of an integrated approach that takes the global vision of the text at hand as a starting point. The two levels of this approach are defined as follows: “At that higher level things are perceived holistically, as a single gestalt, while for identification at a lower level, specific details have to be picked out.”⁷Truly, the integrated approach brings to the forefront of concern the paramount importance of analyzing parts in order to have an appropriate translation. At the outset, a good translator reads his text several times, in doing so s/he grasps the linguistic knowledge of the text. Then s/he moves to the analysis of the situation. That is, the immediate environment of the source text that will help the audience understand the translated text. Finally the translator focuses on the cultural aspects raised in the work at hand; he should fully understand beliefs and values encoded in the text. Indeed, taking the text, situation and culture into consideration will certainly ensure credibility of the translated work in the eyes of the target reader.

3. Cultural Responsibility of Translators

As technology develops and grows fast, nations and their cultures intersect in different ways. Translation, as a means of transposing thoughts and interpreting languages, is required to play an influential role in the current transcultural communication. Translators’ responsibility, thus, goes beyond the mere act of translating. They are not merely bringing about a linguistic translation, but they are also acting as experts in cultural transposition.

Sometimes translations may introduce negative views and aspects into the target culture. In their book, The Translator as Communicator (1997), Basil Hatim and Ian Mason state: “Text may thus be seen as carriers of ideological meaning, a factor which makes them particularly vulnerable to changing socio- cultural norms.”⁸. Additionally, translated texts may act as a reinforcer of the prejudices and clichés that exist about certain societies, especially the once-colonized. According to Said Faiq (2005), this job is done superbly both by the orientalists as well as by the “native foreigners”. While discussing some books written by Arab authors like Ben Jelloun and Mohamed Heikal, Faiq concludes:

Their writings, particularly in English and French, are taken by western cities as evidence that the stereotypes and clichés used to represent/ translate Arabs and Islam, as explained by Said (1997), were and still are true, and that the native foreigners only further confirm them.⁹

Along with the ideology underlying certain works, some translations may unconsciously misinterpret messages and cultures. This is mainly due to translators’ limited competence in one of the languages at hand or it is likely a result of the scarcity of documentation they are working with. Thus, translators are tasked to free themselves from ideology and make huge efforts to participate in merging cultures together.

Certainly, translations, when they are done appropriately, take on a significant role in drawing cultures together. Differences will be absorbed and tolerance will spread in the world. In fact, as Beekman and Callow suggest¹⁰, using a native source language speaker as a helper in translation is a sound technique. It will definitely minimize cultural misinterpretations; and it will eventually lead to cross-cultural understanding. Additionally, translators often participate effectively in the enlightenment of the readers of the target culture. Recently, I have watched some famous plays like Othello and Waiting for Godot performed using the Berber language. For the novelty-seeking Berber public, translating international plays and acting them out in their native language will certainly bring new cultural aspects into the Amazigh culture. In this regard, Larbi Mamouch, a Berber translator, affirms:

La traduction en amazighe permet … de développer l’éventail de sa poétique en « important » de nouveaux genres littéraires, comme le théâtre, la nouvelle, le roman, les formes poétiques modernes,… La littérature amazighe sera aussi enrichie par des motifs et des images poétiques nouvelles, qui viennent s’ajouter à celles déjà connues et en vigueur dans la tradition poétique et littéraire orale.¹¹

4. Conclusion:

In order to promote an inter-cultural awareness and to participate in the development of nations, translators should interpret cultures and messages correctly. The use of an integrated approach, that take the text, the situation and the culture as equally important components of any translation, will show that translators’ work is not done in a social vacuum; rather it is “mired” deeply in culture. Actually, a mere focus on the textual meaning will not contribute to a solidly understood translation and it will simply create cultural misunderstandings that will widen the gap among different societies.

Notes:

1. See the quotation on the first page. ( Under the title) ( Vermeer and Witte, 1990)
2. Said Faiq ( 2005) states:

“When cultures cross and mingle through translation, these pasts come face to face and struggle for power and influence becomes inevitable.”

3. Katan, David. Translating Culture: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators ( Manchester and Northampton: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999) p 169
4. Ibid. p 169
5. Ibid. p 169
6. Ibid. p 177
7. Ibid. p 169
8. Hatim, Basil. Ian Mason. The Translator as Communicator. ( London and New York: Rouledge, 1997) p 127
9. Faiq, Said. ed. Translation, Representation and Identity in Intercultural Communication. (American University of Sharjah, 2005) Vol XIV p 72
10. It is cited in Katan, David. Translating Culture: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators ( Manchester and Northampton: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999) p 173

11- Moumch Larbi in intervied published in http://tirrawal.canalblog.com/archives/2011/01/28/20238791.html

Works Cited

1. Hatim, Basil. Ian Mason. The Translator as Communicator. London and New York: Rouledge, 1997
2. Faiq, Said. ed. Translation, Representation and Identity in Intercultural Communication. American University of Sharjah, 2005. Intercultural Communication Studies.Vol XIV
3. Katan, David. Translating Culture: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators Manchester and Northampton: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999
4. Mamouch, Larbi. “la traduction en amazighe” . Interview with Mohamed Oussous. January 2011. http://tirrawal.canalblog.com/archives/2011/01/28/20238791.html

Three Thinkers and One Objective

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The philosophical inquiry into ‘literature’ is as old as Aristotle and Plato. In a broad sense, most of the following approaches in the literary theory are a reaction or an extension of the views of these prominent Greek philosophers. One of the well-known reactions in the sixteenth century to the classical theory, founded by Plato and Aristotle, comes from Philip Sidney. In one of his seminal essays, entitled “Apology for Poetry”, Sidney shows his support to Aristotle’s theory while being critical to Plato’s stubborn views on ‘literature’. Indeed, a quick reading of some of their writings reveals both similarities and differences in their representation of reality, their views on historians and philosophers, and their appreciation of poetry.

Mimesis, or the representation of reality, is a common ground among the three thinkers. All of them claim that literary texts transcribe reality. For Plato, “ the real artist would be interested in realities.” He tries to imitate what he sees , hears and feels. But this artist is thrice removed from the truth. He fulfills such imitation of reality without being able to understand it. So, the poet gives an imitation of an imitation because the actual world is just an imitation. In a like manner, Aristotle’s specification of ‘ poesis’ is based upon its mimetic quality. He affirms that all poetic forms, such as epic, tragic and comic, contain some ‘truth’ about the world. In his Poetics, he contends” Art imitates nature.”In fact, he strongly believes that art means something better than reality. It offers images of the real world and it helps man’s working on the probable and the possible. In the sixteenth century, Sir Philip Sidney’s view support Aristotle’s. He confirms that poetry is an art of imitation. According to Sidney, the poet’s talents “stem from the fact that he is able to create from a pre-existing idea called the fore-conceit.” The poet participate heavily in the divine act of creation. Like Plato, he belives that the poet is a creator; he is inspired by muse. Similarities and differences are clear in their view of mimesis.

Their views on history and philosophy show obvious parallels and also striking differences. Plato emphasizes the importance of historians and philosophers because they are the ones who guard the young generations. Unsurprisingly, he gives them a special place in his ideal city. By contrast, history is negated in Aristotle’s theory. It is less important than poetry because it does not deal with the universal. History, according to Aristotle, deals with the particulars and acts as a boring-fact recorder that gives no room for imagination. In sharp contrast to the rational severity of Plato, philosophy for Aristotle is based on empiricism, that is, it deals with senses and experiences. Sidney, the great English poet and courtier, supports Aristotle’s views. In a similar fashion, he discounts historians because of “their old mouse-eaten records”. In his interesting essay, “ Apology for Poetry”, he states:

“ The historian, wanting the percept, is so tied, not to what should be but to what is, to the particular truth of things, and not to the general reason of things, that his example draweth no necessary consequence, and therefore a less fruitful doctrine.”

Along with his exclusion of history, Sidney views philosophy negatively. Philosophers’ texts, he claims, are replete with thorny arguments that are “so hard of utterance and so misty to be conceived.” The views of these three thinkers on history and philosophy are, indeed, linked to their conception of poetry.

A quick investigation of the value of poetry in their writings yields several points of agreement as well as some divergences. Plato’s main concern in his famous book, Republic, is to establish his own ideal city with law-abiding citizens. He excludes the poets in this city on the ground that they raise passions and feelings in their writings. They will thus disorient the young generation who are supposed to be obedient and well educated. Plato points out:

“ He (the poet) awakens and nourishes and strengthens the feelings and impairs the reasons.”

The second objection of Plato to poetry relates to the issue of morality. Poets, to Plato, are the source of immoral and unhealthy behaviors. The citizens of the ideal city are in need of good conduct and morally enlightened environment. The first direct retort to Plato’s theory comes from Aristotle. The latter, though he has never claimed that Plato is wrong, foregrounds the importance of poetry in a society. It has some truth and it gives both pleasure and knowledge to the masses. During Renaissance, Sidney’s view espouses Aristotelian theory. In his essay, “Apology for Poetry”, he defends the imaginative process of poets and confirms that poetry both teaches and delights. The poet, “the least liar”, teaches virtue and moves people to take good actions.

Plato, Aristotle and Sidney are highly respected thinkers, whose ideas are adapted or adopted by different theorists and critics. They will definitely continue to influence contemporary approaches and movements for years to come. Their views on history , philosophy and literature ( poesis) show similarities and differences. But the underlying objective behind their views is the manipulation and education of people; the ultimate aim indeed is to build good character and virtuous behavior. For Plato, this is done through philosophy and history; but, for Aristotle and Sidney, it is the affective power of literature and its rhetoric that will stop people from carping and going against the grain.

The Presence of God in the Seventeenth-Century Literary Prose

A Comparison of Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Mohamed Mahou (c)2011

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Religion fashioned the social life of the English people for centuries. In the Middle Ages, for instance, people were totally submissive to the power of the Church, which had its own laws and lands. Popes and bishops imposed taxes on people; and they accepted gifts. Additionally, indulgences became an important source of revenue for the Catholic Church. This behavior was subsequently viewed by many as a corruption. At the beginning of the Renaissance, the Church witnessed turmoil. Martin Luther and Desiderius Erasmus criticized harshly religious practices of the time. In October 1517, Luther published the 95 theses that resulted in the reformation of the Church. During the seventeenth century, English people witnessed some transformations in different domains, especially in Religion. Although it was challenged and questioned, religion remained a source of inspiration that gave rise to an unprecedented creativity. Indeed, the prose literature of the time, for example, was admirably rich and varied. The reason, to be sure, is not far to seek; it was the result of the translation of the Bible. In this paper, I will discuss the importance of the Bible translation and its influence on prose-writers of the seventeenth century. Then I will trace the sense of the presence of God in the works of three major figures: Francis Bacon, the most distinguished exponent of prose writing in the early decades of the century, and Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, from the later period. A quick survey of their influential works will reveal striking similarities and differences in their style of writing as well as their views about Religion.

For several centuries, the scriptures were written in Latin, a factor that limited its readership to the learned. Translations of the Bible into English were not appreciated and they were viewed inappropriate for the public use. It was not until 1611 that a useful version was published entitled, The Authorized Version. Forty-eight scholars were employed to accomplish this translation. G.H.Mair notices:

They (The translators of The Authorized Version) cared passionately for the truth; they were virtually anonymous and not ambitious of originality or literary fame; they had no desire to stand between the book and its readers. It followed that they cultivated that naked plainness and sparseness which makes their work supreme. ¹

The profound effect of the official distribution of this book was felt by all walks of life, especially the writers. Phrases from the Bible were embedded in their works; and a growing tendency to avoid rich, archaic, foreign-sounding sentences was in vogue. For the benefit of the ordinary Englishmen, Puritan preachers spoke to them in their own language, using direct and factual phrases. Examples from everyday life and stories from the Bible formed the backbones of the sermons, which resulted in different styles of prose-writing. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke opted for a direct and unadorned way. However, a multitude of writers, like Francis Bacon, wrote in the Renaissance style. It is worth mentioning here that John Donne, eminent of the dark and difficult eloquence in his sermons, was an exception both in prose and poetry. The Bible, after the publication of The Authorized Version, proves to be not only the first and greatest piece of English prose, but it was also the only literature easily accessible to the laymen. This work was, in fact, the fruit of Renaissance scholarship, a factor that led Francis Bacon to adhere to the old mode of the Elizabethan period.

Francis Bacon (1561- 1626), a famous lawyer in his time who also served in highly respected jobs in the government, was found guilty of bribery. He was imprisoned and debarred from holding public office, the fact that enabled him to invest the rest of his life in writing. He justified his decision by claiming: “I found that I was fitted for nothing so well as for the study of Truth”. ² Bacon had a strong leaning towards Puritanism. His literary fame rests on his Essays, issued in 1597. His writing style is of a late Renaissance artist, using all the rules of imagery and rhetoric to create an effect on his readers. His style is criticized for being too complicated, discontinuous and sometimes unfamiliar. His terse openings to his essays are reminiscent of the opening lines of John Donne’s poems. Clearly, the complex fusion of ideas, the use of aphorisms and the poetic language are typical features of Bacon’s style. Although he argues for a divorce between theology and the study of the matter, his religious sense is not really profound.

Bacon plans to base all knowledge upon scientific observation. But his investigations, according to G.H.Mair, are trivial. As a clever “popularize” of the cause of science, Bacon is chiefly concerned with laying down general principles to guide others’ work. Additionally, His History of Henry VII, which embodies much of his ideas about the practice of politics, is a clear statement of tyranny and oppression in society. This book, along with some of his essays, teaches statesmen and princes how to acquire power and how to keep it. Another striking characteristic of Bacon’s philosophy is his distrust of the importance of the English language in writing. To him, Latin is the language of posterity. No wonder, thus, to find critics who do not pay tribute to his participation in the evolution of modern English prose. C.V. Wedgewood, for instance, states: “It is not really surprising that, although his English prose will always give the pleasure that a finished artistry must convey, it does not belong to the organic part of our literature.” ³ In fact, Francis Bacon’s contribution to English literature in general and in prose-writing in particular can not be denied. Nevertheless, his near- disengagement from the subject of Religion makes of his writings, in style at least, less of a man of the seventeen century, unlike Thomas Hobbes who boldly tries to shatter the religious tenets of the English church.

One major figure of the later seventeenth century prose is, indeed, Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679). He was nicknamed the “Arch-Atheist” because of his subversive views of the established religious beliefs. His masterpiece Leviathan, issued in 1651, is considered a blasphemous book, in which he contends that people believe in God because they have fear of the future. Religion, to Hobbes, is like a dream and God is an illusion. Peter Quennell and Hamish Johnson point out:

The mystery of miracles is only a by-product of human ignorance, and … to explain them there is no need to look beyond material causes. This kind of thorough going materialism earned Hobbes the enmity of almost all the leading thinkers of his time; and he became the centre of a controversy that lasted for nearly three decades.⁴

The church resented his scientific arguments, notably the one which advocates a “social contract theory”. According to Hobbes, a subject should submit to any government with control to guarantee the reign of peace in society. Additionally, human nature, according to him, is governed by selfish and acquisitive motives; there is no virtuous act that is not triggered by a disguised self-interest. In 1667, the House of Commons passed a bill to burn publicly his works because they had attracted a wide readership. In fact, Hobbes’ fame is due, in part, to his writing style. In most of his essays and books, he is concerned with matter rather than with the manner. His prose is admirably lucid and full of images. He makes use of the unembellished language of the people similar to the one used in The Authorized Version. He separates judgment from wit; he disregards the use of metaphors. Bruce King has convincingly argued that: “Hobbes‘s own style is one of the best prose manners found among those associated with the new science.”⁵

In a similar fashion, John Locke (1632-1704) develops this lucid style of prose writing. He believes, like the founders of the Royal Society, in the importance of using the colloquial language in writing. Truth, according to Locke, can be achieved only through plain the language of the people. His works, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1671), Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693) and The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), to name but a few, reveal his empiricism and his focus on experience and senses in order to get knowledge. At birth, Locke claims, human mind resembles a blank page on which experience is inscribed. Unlike Hobbes, Locke does not raise question of Biblical criticism. His theory of toleration tallies with the Christian faith. In his works, religion is treated as a normal subject. Lewis Loflin observes:

In The Reasonableness of Christianity, Locke's most radical and polemical work, he wrote as a "minimalist" and pleaded in good conscience as a believing Christian, a rational defender of revelation, and a loyal Anglican that the Church of England should reform itself in order to attract members from the Dissenters.⁶

As a voluntary Christian, Locke advocates freedom in religious matters. The church for him “is a free and voluntary society, its purpose is the public worship of God”.⁷ His approach to religion is based on reason whereby God communicates truth to his people. Equally important, the government, according to Locke, should cater for religion; but it should not impose its religious ideas on its subjects.

As a conclusion, prose-writers, believers and atheist alike, have felt the Bible’s all-pervading influence. The Authorized Version, the supreme example of early English prose, has inspired subsequent writers to focus on the matter, rather than the manner. In fact, the achievement of the seventeenth century should be chiefly ascribed to the distribution of that book. Its clarity has conveyed Christian ideas to all people, which sometimes results in a conflict with the church. C.V. Wegewood (1970) argues: “This unresolved conflict is typical of the religious outlook of the age, in which the orthodoxy of a recent past conflicted with the explosive heterodoxy of the present.” ⁸ Bacon, because of his affiliations with the Royal Society and of his fear to cause another disgrace in his life, keeps distance from the subject of religion. Thomas Hobbes, his irreligious attitudes reflected in his Leviathan, fires harsh criticism at the Church rigid dealings with religious matters. John Locke occupies a middle position, trying neither to be harshly critical nor wholeheartedly supportive to the Puritan doctrine. Patently, Bible translations, especially The Authorized Version, fashioned for English literature in general a vigorous and concrete language. The rapid development of the printing press and the emergence of a host of energetic and imaginative writers have helped prepare an unprecedented intellectual climate in the English history. In this regard, C. V. Wedgwood notes:

Whatever good or harm was done in this reckless age (the seventeenth century), whatever else it destroyed, or created, or renewed, it brought forth poetry and prose more glorious, strange and varied than any other time and left to succeeding generations a treasure which can not be exhausted and which, to this day, has not been fully explored.⁹

Notes:

1. Mair, G.H. English Literature 1450-1900 (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1969) p 61
2. Quennell, Peter. Hamish Johnson. A History of English Literature. (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973) p 114
3. Mair, G.H. English Literature 1450-1900 (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1969) p 17
4. Quennell, Peter. Hamish Johnson. A History of English Literature. (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973) p 164
5. King, Bruce. Seventeenth- Century English Literature. ( Hong Kong: Macmillan Press, 1982) p 49
6. Loflin, Lewis. “Information on Locke”. Sullivan-County. March 2002. http://www.sullivan-county.com/id2/locke_reason.htm p 2
7. Ibid.p 3
8. Wedgwood, C.V. Seventeenth-Century English Literature (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1970) p 23
9. Ibid .p 17

Works Cited

1. Mair, G.H. English Literature 1450-1900 London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1969
2. Loflin, Lewis. “Information on Locke”. Sullivan-County. March 2002. http://www.sullivan-county.com/id2/locke_reason.htm
3. Quennell, Peter. Hamish Johnson. A History of English Literature. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973
4. Wedgwood, C.V. Seventeenth-Century English Literature London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1970

Postcolonial Theory & Postmodern Features

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Today the postmodern theory and the postcolonial theory are numbered among the major contemporary discourses. In fact, the two theories share common counter discursive processes, a factor that leads some critics, like Linda Hutcheon, to consider postcolonial theory as a manifestation of postmodernism. However, some other scholars, like Wole Soyinka, disagree totally with this view. For them, the postcolonial theory is distinct and different from the Western theories, modern and ancient. To find a middle ground between these two views, I will argue in this paper that the postcolonial theory is both a continuity of the postmodern theory and a shift from it. The present paper tries to define the two theories. It also puts the emphasis on some of their similarities and differences. As a conclusion, I propose a strategic technique for the postcolonial societies to find a voice within the hybrid atmosphere of postmodernism.

A- Postmodernism and the Postmodern Theory:

Nowadays postmodernism manifest itself in different cultural fields: architecture, literature, photography, cinema, to name but a few. There are two major problems in approaching postmodernism: working out a clear-cut definition and determining distinct principles of its theory. Carolyn Brown indicates that postmodernism refers to “a changed status of knowledge” triggered off by “information technology, and the cumulative transformations in representations in the twentieth century.”¹ Ihab Hassan, one of the most imaginative theorists of postmodernism, states that “he can propose no rigorous definition of it (postmodernism)”² Indeed, this lack of clarity gives birth to a number of postmodernisms³: Frederic Jameson’s postmodernism, a general condition in the contemporary informational regime, Linda Hutcheon’s paradoxical postmodernism of historicity, Sherry Wolf’s postmodernism, gay liberation and so on. No one of these postmodernisms is more appropriate or inappropriate than the others; each one is essentially part of the postmodern project that favors plurality. Trying to find a unitary definition would certainly be a very un-postmodern thing.

Although it can not be defined emphatically, postmodernism, according to Ihab Hassan, can be theorized in order not to be a “derelict cliché” with “no cultural concept”⁴. Ironically, to theorize postmodernism is forcibly to acknowledge its ambiguity and indeterminacy. In his article, “Postmodern Perspective”, Ihab Hassan gives a list of features of postmodern theory. Through a number of examples, he deduces that indeterminacy and ambiguity pervade most of postmodern works in different fields; this ambiguity, as a matter of fact, is the result of favouring fragmentation and antitotalization, hence the use of montage, collage and metonymy. It is also a by-product of the process of denaturalization, or in Ihab Hassan’s term, carnivalization. Concepts of the center like family, capitalism, patriarchy and religion are denaturalized and subverted. Ihab Hassan affirms: “We decanonize culture, demystify knowledge, deconstruct the languages of power, desire, and deceit”.⁵

Equally important, the postmodern theory insists on difference which suggests plurality and heterogeneity. The postmodern difference is both plural and provisional. That is, it exists within challenging discourses as well as against the center. In a postmodern work, this difference is achieved through a set of techniques such as parody, travesty, pastiche and irony. As a result, the old hierarchy of high and low culture completely dissolves in the postmodern discourse. For the sake of setting a difference from the established order, the once- marginalized is now, thanks to postmodern theory, heard and given full credence. According to Ihab Hassan, the postmodern text, verbal and non-verbal, invites performance and participation from everybody. The postmodern discourse, to be sure, is characterized by the multiplicity of voices and dissolution of all canons. A further characteristic of postmodern theory is its rejection of basic spiritual and natural truths and in its emphasis on material and physical pleasure.

B- Postcolonialism and the Postcolonial Theory

In the past, postcolonialism referred to the national culture after the departure of the colonized. But now the term means the culture affected by the intrusion of an imperial power from the moment of colonization up to now. In order to contradict the Western ideological leadership in politics as well as in culture, postcolonial writers put forward a postcolonial theory that aims at rejecting Western universalization and dignifying their national cultures. Dennis Walder defines this theory:

Postcolonial theory is an area of literary cultural study that has come into being as part of the decentering tendency of post-1960s thought in the West. But it was also part of a metropolitan, left-wing response to the increasingly visible and successful struggles for independence of colonized peoples worldwide from the 1950s onwards.⁶

Postcolonial theory has a subversive posture toward the Western canon. This subversion is implemented through different techniques. A number of key themes, such as the theme of celebration of independence, the theme of otherness and the theme of the influence of foreign culture on the life of postcolonial societies, pertain to most postcolonial works. Additionally, the postcolonial discourse gives full weight to the once- neglected and “decentered” by focusing on their achievements in different domains. This new discourse tries to spot out the injustices of the past, practiced by the colonizer. Two main movements are highly active within the field of postcolonialism: The postcolonialist culturalist movement and the postcolonial materialist movement. The former, related to poststructuralist and deconstructuralist views, lays the focus on the flow of immigrants to the West and its result in cultural clashes. The second movement, mainly linked to Marxism, puts the emphasis on the economic problems and the effects of globalization on postcolonial societies.

Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) marks the real beginning of postcolonial theory. In this book, Said is mainly subversive of how Western cultural domination of other cultures and experiences is processed. In another seminal work entitled Culture and Imperialism (1993), Said urges the postcolonial nations to stop blaming colonialism for what happened to them. They should try to find a distinct voice in the multicultural world, based on toleration, democracy and reconciliation. Nativism, according to Said, reinforces the distinction between “us” and “them”, similar to the way of orientalism. Acting this way, nativism is totally exclusivist. Other works, like Aschcroft’sThe Empire Writes Back, and Ngugi’s Decolonizing the Mind, to name but a few, are also vey influential in theorizing postcolonialism. In fact, a brief survey of some of these works will immediately makes the reader aware of the ruptures that exist in postcolonialism, which are similar, in a sense, to the indeterminacies of postmodern theory.

C- Affinities in the Two Posts

Although they do not share the same historical or ideological backgrounds, postmodern and postcolonial theories reveal some similarities in their techniques. However, their objectives remain the main difference between them.

Both postcolonial and postmodern theories permeate different domains. They do not confine themselves to written materials. Oral media and visual art are also subjects of their interests. Both of them focus on the marginal. They celebrate the culture of minority groups and they dissolve all languages of power. In search of diversity, the two discourses favor difference. Elleke Boehmer sums up the common features between the two:

Postcolonial and postmodern critical approaches cross in their concern with marginality, ambiguity, disintegrating binaries, and all things parodied, piebald, dual, mimicked, borrowed and second-hand.⁷

To question the metropolitan and centric systems of language and thought, the two theories resort to subversion as their overriding principle. Subversion in literary works, for example, is often done through the use of parody, irony and fantasy. Indeed, poststructuralist and deconstructuralist counter discursive strategies intersect in both theories, a factor that is highly contested by some postcolonial critics like Simon During and Wole Soyinka. For them, poscolonial writers “need to define themselves both against the identity given them by the colonial past as well as against international postmodernism.”⁸

D- Differences in the Two Posts

In fact, differences between the two theories are quite obvious. Deconstruction, as an approach, aims at different purposes. For postmodern critics, it is a way to create a mess in the world by virtue of negating the existence natural truths. Unlike the postmdernists, the postcolonial writers seem to have a legitimate rationale behind adopting deconstruction as their main strategy. Their goal is to expose the past errors and to dignify their native cultures. Though they reject the colonial history, postcolonial scholars firmly preserve their own. Equally important, postmodern notions of meaning as arbitrary or of identity as provisional are hardly relevant to postcolonial theory.

Hybridity, an invention of postmodern thought, is viewed as a way out of binary thinking, which permits to destabilize the center. Poscolonial theorists, like Ngugi and Soyinka, think that hybridity is a negative discourse to copy. This idea is further discussed by Homi Bhabha, who defines it as “the sign of the productivity of colonial power”⁹, that results in a hybrid identity or, to borrow his own phrase, “the third space of enunciation”. A group of postcolonialist critics advocate the need to reconsider the notion of this term, which is actually perceived as another way of Western domination. They insist, thus, that postcolonial societies should preserve their own distinct cultural features and reject the myth of universalism. However, some scholars such as Bhabha and Spivak are critical of “the epistemology and politics of cultural nationalism or separatism”^10. They insist on giving respect for both the cultural difference and heterogeneity.

E- Conclusion: A way-out

A common ground between the postmodern theory and the postcolonial theory is their insistence on difference. The move off-center is indeed laudable; and it is highly appreciated by the once-marginalized voice. However, the postmodern theory seems to have no goal and it does not know where it is really leading. The postcolonial theory, on the other hand, is aware of its objectives, but it dwells too much on the past; and some of its radical movements are separatist and even racist (Negritude is a case in point). In Eurocentrism, Samir Amin condemns eurocentrism as anti-universalist because it does not seek to construct possible general laws of human evolution; rather it presents the Western view of the world as the only legitimate and triumphant consciousness. For Amin, Islamic fundamentalist as well as the nationalists act in the same vein. That is, they insist on “the affirmation of irreducible ‘unique traits’ that determine the course of history.”¹¹

Modernity requires from the postcolonial societies to have a sense of optimism and to be active agents in the postmodern project. Through acting as a vehicle for progression and inventing in different domains, the countries of the “periphery” will certainly find a sense of real identity in the postmodern era. Their works should not be characterized by opposition, rather by creativity and competition with the Western thought. Postcolonialists should try to benefit from the West in different fields; following, thus, the steps of some renowned scholars such as Ibn Rushd, Edward Said, Chinua Achebe, to name but a few. These multicultural, not to say postcolonial, theorists dealt with the West; they criticized and learned from its intellectual assumptions.

As a strategic move postcolonial theorists should preserve their cultural identity. They should actually affirm that they are economically and technologically postmodern; but, culturally speaking, they should protect their cultural distinctions. Additionally, having a sense of identity should not be an obstacle in dealing with the Western culture. Having an opened-minded attitude will clearly result in a brave new world that asserts both local independence and global interdependencies.

Notes

1. Brown, Carolyn. “Feminist Literary Strategies in the Posrmodern Condition”. Carr Helen. ed. From My Guy to Science Fiction: Genre and Women’s Writing in the Postmodern. (London: Panda, 1986), 113.
2. Hassan, Ihab. “ Pluralism in Postmodern Perspective” in Critical Inquiry 12 ( Spring 1986) , 503
3. Different postmodernisms are put forward by Brian Mc Hale in his book :

Mac Hale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction (London and New York: Methuen, 1988), p. 11; quoted in Linda Hutcheon, (The Politics of Postmodernism), 11.

4. Hassan, Ihab. “Pluralism in Postmodern Perspective”. p 504.
5. Ibid. 505
6. Walder, Dennis. Postcolonial Literatures in English. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1998), 59.
7. Boehmer, Elleke. Colonial and Postcolonial Literature. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 244.
8. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffths, Helen Tiffin, ed. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial Literatures. (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), 164.
9. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffths, Helen Tiffin, ed. The Postcolonial Studies Reader. ( London and New York: Routledge, 1995) , 34
10. Gilbert, Barth Moore. Postcolonial Theory. ( London and New York: Verso, 1997), 191
11. Amin, Samir. Eurocentricism Translated by Russell Moore. ( London and New York: Zed Books, 1988) , 135

Works Cited

1. Amin, Samir. Eurocentricism. London and New York: Zed Books, 1988
2. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffths, Helen Tiffin, ed. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial Literatures. London and New York: Routledge, 1989
3. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffths, Helen Tiffin, ed. The Postcolonial Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge, 1995
4. Brown, Carolyn. “Feminist Literary Strategies in the Posrmodern Condition”. Carr Helen. ed. From My Guy to Science Fiction: Genre and Women’s Writing in the Postmodern. London: Panda, 1986
5. Boehmer, Elleke.Colonial and Postcolonial Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995
6. Gilbert, Barth Moore. Postcolonial Theory. London and New York: Verso, 1997
7. Hassan, Ihab. “ Pluralism in Postmodern Perspective” In Critical Inquiry 12 Spring 1986
8. Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism. London and New York: Routledge, 1989
9. Walder, Dennis. Postcolonial Literatures in English. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1998