Wednesday, October 2, 2013

The Start!

It was the start! It was really the start! The start of a long way to joblessness and carelessness. I started something that was supposed to be a job. I started, in fact, death –in- life in a bush called TANA. It was a barren land stretching away from the real life. People were walking sleepy all day long, longing for nothing but a drop of water to sweat their dry throats or to wash their daily sins.
   A teacher, full of energy and new ideas stuffed up in his little head by teacher-trainers who had never been in the bush, was riding an old coach towards death-in-life. “Maybe it is okay over there; maybe a change has visited the place,” my mother assured me. I looked in her sweaty eyes and said, “It was my decision, mum. Don’t worry I will be fine.” She knew it would not be the case. However, her words had really consoled me. I packed my stuff and I set on a journey to my death.
   After one hundred kilometers of driving, the coach started coughing and sneezing. It was an incurable disease that only the conductor was familiar with. The driver, a cigarette in his hand, stopped and tried to see what could be done. Astonished and sleepy, the passengers were looking at each other. It was about midnight. The landscape was so dark that nothing could be seen through the windows. The conductor asked people to keep their places because the coach would  leave in five minutes. I took my warm SIDI ALI and drank. I knew such games;minutes were usually hours, if not days. After one hour exactly, the old coach moved ahead.The conductor was smiling when getting on, proud to start the old shaky engine. Surely he would tell his boss tomorrow. He was not only a simple conductor but also a gifted mechanic. He knew that his preferred workers who were jacks-of-all-trades and greenhorns deceived on each paid day. He was now sure now that he was so important in this coach. Once on the move, I fell asleep, dreaming of the next life in TANA. All of a sudden, a passenger was yelling out “FIRE! FIRE! HELP!” the conductor woke up and asked the woman:
   “What’s up, woman?”
   “I smell something like fire,” she uttered fearfully.
   “Like fire! Where is this shit? I smell nothing, baby.”
   “It’s my cigarette maybe, Simo.” Shouted the driver from the front.
   “We can’t sleep in this damn cart, shit!”  Simo said nervously and went to his seat between the rows. He covered himself with a dirty blanket and started snoring noisily after a few seconds. The woman believed him, she covered her head and fell asleep.
At nine o’clock in the morning, the coach was ambling smoothly along a small bus station, an open place where nobody was on the scene. Simo was shouting to the passengers to get off.
   “Hurry up, be quick! The boss is waiting. We were late!”
   “To the hell with your boss” I whispered, holding my bag firmly in my hand
   “TANA is here. Did you hear me?” he said glaring at me.
   “I know! Be patient!” I said and got off to look for another adventure. A passenger did not find his bag and started shouting at the conductor face. Happy to be away from this damn coach, I made my way forward. In fact, I did not know where to go. I was like a fish out of water, bewildered by the noise and the smoke of the old engine. Three boys were playing near the bus station. One of them was throwing stones at a closed door and the other two were running after Hondas and motorcycles. They were really enjoying themselves. I approached the boy with stones.
   “Hello, boy” I said putting my hand on his right shoulder.
   “I got it, I really got it”
   “What?”
   “The door! The door!”
   “Why are you throwing stones at that door?”
   “I ‘m doing like the children on TV”.
   “Aha! But this is just a door!”
   “I know. It is better to play with the door and not with the white-helmeted people.”
   “Do you know a hotel here?” I asked him, changing totally the subject.
   “Over there! There!” He pointed to a house opposite the bus-station.
   He resumed his game happily. The house had two floors. New York hotel was written at the foot of stairs. The latter needed cleaning badly. When climbing up, I passed a woman lying right in the middle of stairs.
   “ This is my room, you know!”She said with a broad smile on her lips. I nodded to her .I did not dare to say a word. She looked a bit abnormal. Suddenly, a young man showed up at the top of the stairs. He was still yawning. I told him that I wanted a room. Without hesitating, he handed me a key and asked me to go to room five on the right corner. The woman was saying something to the young man with an accent I could not understand. The room was a bit small for me; the bed smelled bad, but I did not care a damn. Indeed, I was happy to lie down after a long boring journey. After a few minutes, I fell asleep. I dreamt of a woman hanged in an old gloomy room. I wanted to scream, but a robust young man hushed me immediately.
   “ Hush! Hush! It is not your business. What do you do here? OUT!”
   “I.“
   “OUT! I said!”
   When I opened my eyes, I heard somebody knocking at my door. I felt indisposed to open. The knocking got louder and louder. Fearfully I opened the door; it was the woman I saw in the stairs.
  “Can I help you, man?”
   “No, thanks. I don’t need any help at the moment!” I said with an angry voice. I wanted to shut the door, she did not move.
    “Just with ten dirhams, you can have your pleasure. I ‘m cheap, you know.”
With all my efforts, I pushed her out of my room, yelling crazily. “GO AWAY! SHIT!”
   Though she was very skinny, she was so powerful that I could not move her a bit. She was taller than me with long black hair. From her eyes, I could perceive the lost beauty. Indeed, either time or the hot weather effaced the ridges of her face long time ago. In her ragged clothes, she looked like a ghost, disgusting and fearsome. I kept shouting at her face but in vain. Much to my indignation, she spat at my face and pushed me backwards. All of a sudden, the receptionist showed up and pulled her out of my room. Obediently, she went out. I wanted to kick her, but the man intervened.
    “Be calm, mate. She is a bit mad. Close your door!”
    “ I’ll kill this bitch; she …”
   “You can do nothing. She is out of her mind. Sit down, I will explain everything.”
We both had a seat. I was not really in a good mood for listening to his story.
   “She was teaching here for two years. Last year she became mad. She could not bear life here. Her husband ….”
   “ That ‘s enough; I want to get some sleep, please!”
   “Okay, I ‘ll tell you more later. Bye!”
   At eight o’clock the following day, I was at school. I was lucky I did not meet the mad woman when going out. The weather was windy and stuffy. I did not know whether to wear or take off my woolly coat. Sensations of heat and cold were deep inside me. There were four slum-looking rooms on the right side and an empty space on the other side. “ Education for Everybody” was written on a small dirty board near the doorway. A man about seventy years old was approaching me. He was skinny and frail looking. His clothes looked rumpled and dirty. Politely, I introduced myself asked after the headmaster.
    “What? I can’t hear you!” He shouted.
   “The headmaster!” I said.
   “ What!” I deduced that he was deaf. I had to raise my voice to nearly a shout to be heard. When he got my message, he gave a broad grin.
   “Headmaster! Headmaster! I’ m a headmaster at the moment. The right one comes on Saturdays.”
   “ But I need him to show me my class and my house. I’ m going to work here, you know.” I said with a raise voice again.
   “Your class and your house ‘ll be one of these rooms.” He was pointing to the slums.
   “ Can I see them?”
   “This is always the same problem with new teachers. They are always the first to arrive and the first to leave. Okay, come to see your destiny.”
   “What do you mean?”
   “Nothing, boy. Follow me.”
   I followed him to one of the rooms. He just kicked the door and we were in. It was a large strange room with small tables all around. It was painted in a black gloomy colour so as not to get dirty easily. Students had managed to scratch their names on the black walls. Little dirty spots were seen here and there, which were maybe meant for decorations. What a decoration! A large blackboard was hanging on the front wall. A small desk and a frail-looking chair were in the right corner, opposite the door. “This is your class. Let’s see your house now!” The old man said. We both moved to the back of the class. The old man drew a black curtain that separated the tables from the other part of the room. There was a small bed next to the wall, covered with a greasy-looking blanket. It seemed to me that I was in a cave or a grave. I looked at the ceiling and I saw spiders welcoming my visit.
   The floor was draped with dust; four windows were blankly staring at me. No curtains and no glasses at all. Old food cans, cigarette butts and strips of paper were also part of the gloomy scene, singing maybe or honking to me to join in and play the dirty game. The lamps all around were shattered and sharp edges of plastic were hanging loosely from their sockets.
   “You have to get up early before they come in”, he advised me.
    I nodded and asked, “How long have you been here, father.”
   “ All my life maybe!” He said angrily.
   “ One piece of advice, boy. Don’t ask too many questions here because nobody will answer them. Try to be easy going and forget about your past as well as your dreams, you know.”
   “ When is the first day of the school year?”I asked loudly again.
   “ After one month maybe. It is too hot now for students to come to school. Anyway it is the headmaster’s decision. Go back and have a nice time in your city.”
    I left the old man and went out. At the doorway, two goats were gazing at me, wondering what I was doing around. My eyes went wide with terror. Was it the life I was going to have?
Was it an end to my dreams? Was my death so near? For a moment I tried to behave like a man, but it was too much for me. I burst into a wild cry just outside the Pyramid School. Tears poured down my cheeks and past my mouth. Fortunately, the street was as empty as usual. People were asleep or even dead!!! For all I could see, I was the only human being in this place; the last man left on the Earth.
    All of a sudden, the child with the stones showed up. He was singing softly to himself. Though it made no sense to me, the song seemed to be sad. His voice was high and thin, and his face was very serious, as if the song was really important. He had skinny arms and slim legs. He stopped singing when I was near him.
    “What are you singing, boy?” I asked.
   “A song of freedom. I am singing for them.” He said.
   “Who are they?”
   “ The children on TV. The children who had no time to neither sing nor dance. Always busy to free their land. I simply do it for them.”
   “Why?”
  “Why! Why! Are you a teacher at that school?” He just ignored my question and waited for an answer for his.
Yes, I ‘ m a new teacher here. Do you go to school?”
No, I help my father in the fields. I don’t like school…”
   He resumed his sad song and ran away without bothering to say good-bye. I really wanted to ask him further questions but he seemed to hate to be with a teacher. At the hotel’s doorway, the mad woman was sweeping the stairs .She kept staring when she felt my presence. In my room, I packed my stuff and I was out. There were a lot of people at the bus-station because it was the souk day. It was hot and I felt sweaty. The noise that pounded in from everywhere in the coach made it even hotter. I felt totally exhausted and dead on my feet. I hated the place; I hated being forced to work here; I hated giving up my dreams and I hated even more the feeling that there was nothing I could do about it.

The Cat in the Room

The cat was staring furiously through the closed window. Lights outside were brighter, popping out the eyes and attracting the absent-minded. For long, she was complaining about the life in the inside. She was not made for this stuffy den, not made to live like a rabbit in a tiny warren, especially now when she was totally aware of what was going around in the other side through the little hole. For long, she had been on stage, spending time pretending and acting in scenes that never came to an end. Pretending to be his friend and taking the room as her doomed prison that she would never escape. Daily she was forced to amuse Mr.Bossie in his old armchair and daily she was a lifeless clown lounging around.

The cat kept meowing and screaming off her head to be heard far away, outside the closed room. Accustomed to the noise and her little tricks, Mr. Bossie was lolling calmly about, a cigarette in one hand and the cat’s fate in the other. “ Come, Catty. Let’s watch TV!” she heard day in and day out. She was bored with his sweet sillies, fed up with film fantasies and serial love stories. Out of this exposure, she became acquainted with every story and every TV presenter. But this was not what she wanted, this not it at all. She, a living creature full of beans, could not stand it any more. Silently, she jumped on his lap to play the dirty game once more. She wanted to jump and scratch his cheeky face. But she realized that it was not the right time. It was the silence that preceded the storm; the silence warmed his heart and in the meanwhile it energized her suppressed desire to revolt.
“ What ‘ s up, cat? Why are you in a bad mood?”

Silence broke through. The cat was again hypnotised, immersed in the film on TV: blond fish, clean and large dens, and delicious pots of milk. From now and then, she threw a glimpse through the closed window; she perceived stormy waters all around the room. “ I am in a real trap. I will never be out,” she thought. She usually wondered why Mr.Bossie was at home here, but no answer crossed her mind. Was he blind? Mad? Or a prisoner? Things got blurred on her mind and she concentrated on the film once again.

“ Are you hungry? Take some popcorn! Take!”
He got no answer. Briskly she jumped to the door, scratching the door with her claws and leaning her head on its panel when she felt exhausted. Mr.Bossie did not get the message or pretended not to understand. He ignored her and went to a cracked mirror beside his cluttered bed. He saw himself as a handsome man. The man loved the mirror and the mirror loved the man. He started caressing it and giving lavish kisses. With a strange frown on her face, the cat moved slowly to her usual place under his bed.
A candle was lighting the poorly furnished room. Mr. Bossie ‘s dirty clothes were scattered all around; unread books covered the dusty ground; old slices of bread were decorating the top of the little set and popcorn was dispersed all over the bed. In short, the room was in a total disorder. Since the last flood, the room had been isolated on the peak of Siba hills losing all contact with the outside. Water blocked both the door and the little window and no one was able to break through. In fact, Mr. Bossie never dared to force it out. He seemed to enjoy the little prison.

“What a beautiful man I am! Tomorrow I’m going to change my haircut. I’ll look like a prince Ha! Ha!” he pointed out to his ego on the mirror surface.
“Tomorrow is my birthday! Yes, I’m going to have a party. But how old am I? Still young, still young! Yeah! I’m going to invite my dead parents, my future wife, my cat, all my friends, my auntie Tigress…No! No! No! Not auntie again! She will never see me. No! I hate Tigress! Did you hear me? I hate her to death! No auntie here!”
Mr. Bossie was really furious; he held the mirror firmly in his hands and started shouting again,
“No auntie! Never mention her name in my room! I’ll kill her if she comes in. Did you get me, Mary?”

His shouting bombarded the room and tuned with the sound of waters outside and the rising crashes of the wind. The cat stood in fear and trembling and gaped at her boss.
White spume was leaking from his wide mouth. To put his anger into practice, he wanted to beat something nearby. He kicked his coffee-table and shouted out,
"Where are you, Catty? Come out quickly. Close the door. Don´ t let Tigress in. Quick. Quick"

Without waiting for an answer, Mr. Bossie checked both the door and the window. They were firmly shut. On his way to his bed, he kicked the cat harshly. Meowing and sobbing began again. But the kick was so painful this time. She was lying on the floor for some time.

“Shut up I want to sleep a bit. We will have a busy day tomorrow. Go to bed and be ready for the party. You are also invited”, said Mr. Bossie arrogantly.

The moon was looming large in the dark sky. The sound of thunder was heard loudly outside. The weather inside was freezing and stuffy. The light of the candle was so dim; it was reaching its end. She gave a glimpse through the small hole in the closed window; it was her unique thread that she had with the outside.

It is the right time. I cannot stand more than that. Enough is enough she thought
She frowned at Mr.Bossie, who was snoring deeply in his bed. She looked twice at her claws, her only weapons against the enemy. Her teeth were sharp and thin. She was raising her tail up and took a deep breath. Like an experienced soldier, she stood up straight and fixed her eyes on the foe. Without any further thoughts and regardless of any subsequent consequences, she jumped on Mr. Bossie's head, scratching and biting with all her strength. The revolution started. Mr. Bossie, scared at the outset, fought back, kicking and squeezing the cat's throat between his sturdy hands. Within a few minutes, the cat was dead. Mr. Bossie's strength and height were in his favor for the first time. He cursed the day he was brought in this room and cursed even the day of his birth. Bloodshed took place in the closed room. Mr. Bossie enjoyed the scene and started beating up the dead, bloody cat.
"Take! Take! Take! You are going to regret it like Tigress. Take!

Being sure that the enemy was completely over, he stood up proudly near his mirror. He felt a strong desire to celebrate his victory. A convulsion shook him and he scrabbled at the ground, covering himself in a mask of dust and blood. Then he was still again. On the mirror surface he perceived a disgusting, frightening face. Out of anger, he smashed the mirror with one of his fists and knelt down, screaming, “Never, I will never invite this damn cat to my party”.

Ma fille

publié sur oasisdesartistes.com

Voici ta main
Voici ma main
Meurtrie de cloques depuis l'enfance

Voici tes mirettes
Voici mes mirettes
Emplies du sommeil de mort depuis l'utérus

Voici ta langue
Voici ma langue
Gelée de neige depuis l'école

Voici ma tête
Voici ta tête
Cernée de blancheur
Même si elle encore sur les pieds

Voici ta vie
Voici ma vie
Poignée de sable dans un étang de ténèbres

Ma fille
Te voilà
Me voilà
Avec le troupeau ne va pas !
Non plus ne me ressemble pas !

Chant d'homme libre Amazigh

publié sur oasisdesartistes.com
Si je n'ai pas de frontières
Je ferai de la fierté ma fontière
Si au diner à me mettre sous la dent je n'ai rien
Je mangerai de par mes mirettes aussi bien

Si je suis de cécité atteint,j'écouterai
Si je suis de surdité atteint,je penserai
Si à court d'idée je me trouve,je demanderai

Si je suis orphelin de père
Je ferai de ma propre force mon père
Si je suis orphelin de mère
Je ferai de la tendresse ma mère

Si je n'ai pas d'ami
Je ferai de mon ombre l'ami
Si je n'ai pas d'ennemi
je ferai de mon corps l'ennemi

Si je n'ai pas de lieu pour la prière
Je ferai de mon coeur un sanctuaire
S'il me manque un Imam pour présider ma prière
Je ferai de ma langue mon seul témoin occulaire

Si je manque d'argent
Je ferai de la sobriété mon argent
Si je n'ai rien
Je ferai de la grande faucheuse mon unique bien

Je ferai de la pensée ma vocation
Je ferai de la langue mon existence
Si je n'ai pas de bien-aimée
Je ferai de la fibule ma bien-aimée

Iman inu

The following rendering uses Unicode Tifinagh-Characters. If they are not properly displayed, you can download and install GNU Unifont.

ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓ

ⵔⵉⵖ ⴽⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵜ
ⵍⵃⴱⴰⵇ ⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ
ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵊⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵖ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ
ⵔⵉⵖ ⴽⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵜ
ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴳ
ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ
ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ
ⵔⵉⵖ ⴽⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵜ
ⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜ
ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⵔ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵉⵏⵓ
ⵔⵉⵖ ⴽⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵜ
ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵔ
ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵖ ⵓⴳⵯ ⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⵓ
ⵔⵉⵖ ⴽⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵜ
ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⵎ
ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵎ
ⵜⵓⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ.


Agadir, ass n 27-12-2009

Illi



Ha d afus nm
Ha d afus inu
Ijdr s tlbbav zgh mzziy
Ha d alln nm
Ha d alln inu
Ktarnt s ids n tmttant zgh asiru 1
Ha d ils nm
Ha d ils inu
Iqqur gh udfl zgh tinml
Ha d ixf inu
Ha d ixf nm
Tssutl as tmlli
Mqqar ibdd hlli
Ha d tudrt nm
Ha d tudrt inu
Tummazt n umlal gh tmda n tillas
Illi
Had kmmi
Had nkki
Ad ur tmunt d ulli



1 Illi gh ittlal warraw v udis n tmghart (utérus)

Monday, July 22, 2013

Abu waskiwn ay afalkay

Abu waskiwn ay afalkay
Ma f ar sul tcttat?
Ma f ar sul tssat ?
Yak rad gn ttmi i tudrt nk!
Yak nnan ass n tmttant nk!
Max aylligh tn tujjit
Ad ak gn iskraf
Issudm k wwad
Tawk ttad tadu nk
Abu waskiwn ay afalkay
Ini asn:
Is rad iyi bdda tqqrsm!
Is rad iyi bdda tsdullum!
Abu waskiwn ay afalkay
Gg zund nkk
Tsitti tn iskraf
Tasit asafu
Tinit asn:
Amazigh ad iyi t innan!
Amazigh ad iyi t innan!
Tankra1 zund tin bu ilmawn gh igr uma3i2
Tarat amzruy nk s waskiwn nk
A bu waskiwn ay afalkay
Ad ak ur gin lhnna ula fkan ak afar nna
Azmz n tssumga3 ur sul illa
Tadrfit ! Tadrfit !
Abu waskiwn ay afalkay.



Agadir ass n 26-12- 2009







1Tagrawla (Révolution, ttawra)
2Yan udwwar gh dcayra tasga n ugadir ittwayssan s bu ilmawn.
3ad ig ufgan ismg i wayyad- esclavage

Mra...


Mra ka gigh
Yat tnfult1 n ddular
Nghd tin luru
Ula gigh amaziv
Mra gan i wawal inu atig
Mra skarv azal v yid
Rad sisi sawaln
Rad iyi ttghawaln
Rad iyi gn gh ulawn
Rad iyi sakan amadal
Mmrn igh d darsn uckigh
Nnuvjfn igh asn ddigh



Mra ka gigh
Yat tanfult n ddular
Nghd tin lluru
Ula gigh amazigh.



Ayt baha 05- 03- 2009

1 Tawriqt (feuille).

Teacher-Talk : A Sociolinguistic Variable

A Review of an article by Deborah Osborne
A. Summary :
Communicative competence can be generally defined as the ability to use linguistic forms appropriately in any circumstances. Indeed, it consists of four components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. The first one refers to the  ability to produce and understand correct syntactic, lexical and phonological forms in a language. The second one is the ability to use a language appropriately in sociocultural contexts. The discourse competence is defined as the combination of grammatical forms and meaning to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres. Finally, strategic competence refers to strategies to enhance or facilitate communication.
Obviously, it is not sufficient to teach just one of the above components. Teachers of English should encourage their students to develop all these components of communicative competence. Osborne’s article (1999) focuses on the sociolinguistic competence, especially “ language variability and how teachers often deal with it ”  (1999 : 10): one aspect of teaching process that confuses the learners is its inconsistency. That is, teachers teach their students one form of saying something in the classroom, and in a natural setting they hear native speakers use a different version. This phenomenon is called a linguistic variable in linguistics, and its use is sensitive to social contexts, it is termed sociolinguistic variable.
To illustrate the point, Osborne provides the example of “ be going to + infinitive”. This verb tense has two norms or conventions : one   is “the going form”, and the second is “ the gonna form”. The two constitute a linguistic variable, and each occurrence is sensitive to a social  context. For example, “gonna form” is used in informal setting, and more precisely in American culture while the second form that is, “ be + going ” is used by educated people in formal contexts. The second form is well – mastered by so many non-native speakers in comparison to the gonna form. Two reasons are behind this : First it’s due to the difficulty of learning English rhythm, and secondly, it is triggered by the way teachers deliver their language input. Osborne states:
When teachers show their rate of speech and enunciate, gonna is impossible to say” ( Osborne 1999 : 11 )
Osborne raises also the issue of teacher talk. It is defined as speech used by teachers, it is more simplified and shorter than normal speech. Teacher talk is characterised by four adjustments occurring at different levels:
1) Lexis: It restricts the diversity of vocabulary by avoiding colloquial expressions and slang words.   
2) Phonological: It is characterised by exaggerated articulation, extended pauses and slower rate of speech.
3) Syntactic: The use of fewer subordinate / embedded clauses and short utterances.
4 Discourse: The dominance of the first person and the use of repetition to make things clear.
Two aspects of teachers talk have been investigated by researchers, that is, the rate of speech and syntactic complexity. According to Osborne, The slow rate of speech do help students to perform well, however, it’s has one drawback. She points out :
The consequence is that without working on the the pronunciation of English ( notably the rhythm ) and exposure to more usual pronunciation of variables,  learners of English learn and retain a relatively formal and sometimes hypercorrect form of  English (1999 : 11 ).
A practical solution, according to Osborne, is to allow students to hear both formal and informal speech, in this case “ gonna ” and “ going to ” forms. At the outset, the formal form is presented with careful pronunciation and students are asked to use it. Next, the teacher introduces the informal form, gonna, and explains its use and constraints. Finally, practice of the reduced form is provided through drills and role – play. In doing so, students are exposed to authentic speech of the natural setting and to teacher talk related to the classroom context.
B. Evaluation:
The article has tackled two related issues in teaching / learning process, namely sociolinguistic competence and teacher talk. Concerning the former, it is believed that the use of appropriate language in an appropriate sociocultural context is highly advisable (                    ). This context can vary according to factors such as status of participants, purposes of the interaction, and norms or conventions of the interactions. Osborne insists on the uses and constraints of both formal and informal form of “ to be going to”.
According to Osborne, students should be exposed to all varieties of English so as to be “ acting more English ” ( P. 12 ). Since there is no unique and pure English, ESL teachers opt for the use of formal English in the classroom setting. From time to time teachers do expose their students to authentic speech through listening to taped-conversations. It’s the teacher’s role thus to make their students aware of the appropriateness of utterances, both in terms of meaning and form. By appropriateness of meaning, it is meant that the extent to which particular communicative functions, attitudes, and ideas are judged to be proper in a given context. The appropriateness of form, on the other hand, concerns the extent to which a given meaning is represented in a verbal or non-verbal form that is related to a particular sociolinguistic situation. It’s important to mention that Osborne has discussed the second one, but she doesn’t deal with meaning. A further remark is that she restricts herself to one example of this phenomenon, that is, “ be going to ” form and “ gonna ” form. The distinction between the two forms doesn’t create problems for the learners, and it doesn’t really hinder the ongoing of communication.
Concerning teacher talk, many researchers have pointed to its effects on students’ learning because it is one important source of language input (Saiz1990:24 ). The common characteristic of teacher talk is simplification which can be defined as the adjustments intended to make utterances easier to understand. Osborne has pointed to one of its negative effects. That is, because of the language classroom, a student retains “hypercorrect” form of English. The effectiveness of teacher talk, however, can not be denied, The effectiveness of teacher talk depends on a variety of factors among which are : The point in the lesson in which talking occurs, and the value of teacher talk itself whether it is useful for acquisition or not. Fontana stipulates:
Teachers who can talk interestingly  and relevantly, and who can stimulate children’s imagination and thinking are  for a better aid to learning than any amount of misguided and rather desultory project work.
  “ Fontana : 1981 : 351 ).
Osborne ignores another important aspect in teacher talk, that is, teacher talking ratio. In fact, her  “ practical ” solution encourages teachers to talk too much. But a question may be raised here: Who is in need to talk, students or teachers? The communicative approach has readjusted the balance in the teaching learning process. It is the learner who is encouraged to test his communicative competence through putting it into practice. The teacher’s involvement, especially teacher talk, is kept to the minimum. Indeed, to introduce the formal form and use of  “ be going to ”, and to expose students “ aurally ” to the use and constraints of  “ gonna ” will certainly maximise teacher talking time.
The solution, however, is to let students discover the informal form by themselves in a natural setting or to provide them with authentic materials such as audio-tapes and films that include real-life speech; but without dwelling on the uses and constraints of informal speech as Osborne suggested. The more familiar they are with these materials, the more able they are to understand and use informal speech. Added to this would be the assumption that ESL teachers are guided by many factors, for instance, the programme studied, the level of students and time. Osborne seems to forget these factors that oblige teachers to stick to formal English. In addition, of course, to the fact that formal English is used at an international level. Duff (1997) Contends:
“ ‘ELT English’ could be described as a kind  of ‘dialect’ adopted by ELT and taught as the world auxiliary language. It has, in fact, become what Ogden set out to create artificially with Basic English (1930): an international communication system with no real community of origin outside ELT itself .” (Duff 1997 : 266-267)
C. Conclusion :
Osborne’s article is insightful for teacher trainees who need to master sociolinguistic skills of English in order to expose their students to different varieties. This should be done through bringing authentic conversations to the classroom. In short, listening to audio-tapes and watching English films will make students familiar with both formal and informal speeches. However, teacher talking time should be used appropriately and effectively.  
              
References :
                             
    • Duff, T. “Comment : raise high the standard !”. ELT Journal. Vol. 51/3. July 1997.
    • Fontana, D. (1981). Psychology for Teachers. London: Macmillan Press LTD.
    • Osborne, D. 1999. “Teacher Talk: A Sociolinguistic Variable”. English Teaching Forum. Vol37, N°2, Apr- Jun 1999.
Saiz, M. (1990) “Communication Strategies” English Teaching Form. October 1990. 

INTERNET

Today, the Internet is conceived as the best archive of world information that human kind has at his/her disposal. Indeed, this fact has an impact on education. Students as well as teachers have now access to a huge range of teaching materials that enhances their productivity. However, using the Internet as a source of data has some drawbacks.
            To begin with, the most important advantage of the Internet in the teaching / learning process is its large scope. Technology developments make it possible to receive an endless range of topics and information via the Internet. An infinite range of teaching materials are, thus, available for teachers to use in their classes. Lesson plans, quizzes, games and different class activities are on the Web now. Through using gateways and webrings,  teachers try to find materials designed for ELT. To expand their search, different browsers, directories and search engines are on the Net. Having a clear idea of what a teacher is looking for determines, as Dede Teeler points out, the best tool to use for any search.
            Secondly, the content of the Internet is updated regularly. Teachers are therefore acquainted with new information monthly, weekly or even daily. This topicality of the Net allows teachers to explore teacher development opportunities which are not frequently and easily available to them in any other way. Related to this is the fact that the web provides an access to its materials at any time of the day or night regardless, of course, of location. Most importantly, new publications are daily included, some of them have not yet been printed.
            Finally, another advantage of using the Web as a source of teaching materials is its personalisation. To find alternative subjects and texts that may be relevant to their students’ needs, the easiest and the cheapest way for teachers is the Internet. Textbooks, encyclopaedias and articles may be browsed in order to supply additional information to students as well as to teachers. Added to this is the fact that the Net provides an opportunity to establish links between teachers from different cities and countries, a case in point here is TESL mailing list. The rational behind is to share and exchange information.
            However, the net as a source of teaching materials has some disadvantages. For example, teachers need to adapt materials they have found. Net-based materials should be appropriate to the interests and the grade level of the students. The fact that needs a little time and sacrifice from teacher’s part.   According to Teeler and Gray ( 2000 ), patience, flexibility and lateral thinking are highly required when searching for ELT materials. A further disadvantage is the cost of the Internet. To go to cyberspaces and make photocopies for large groups of students cost a lot. But once Moroccan high schools are equipped with Internet classrooms and Xeroxing machines such problem will certainly fade away.
            In short, though it has some disadvantages, using the Internet as a source of teaching materials is rewarding. Integrating the web’s usefulness into the school curriculum will bring life again into our dull, sterile classrooms. Nevertheless, teachers should not rely uniquely on the net because it does not include everything and its sources are not all reliable.      

Classroom Affective Environment

1-     Affective Filter.
    Krashen (1983) considers the teacher’s talk as an input that can be an intake for the students. He also states that the affective filter controls the quantity of input. Learners with high motivation  and self-confidence and with low-anxiety have low filters and, thereby, obtain and convert plenty of input into intake. By contrast, learners with low motivation, little self-confidence and high anxiety have high filters and, hence, receive little input. Creating an affective environment is of paramount importance in the teaching /learning process. The lower the affective filter, the more intake will take place, and vice versa. Indeed, the use of humor and effective warm-ups are two ways of lowering students’ affective filter.
2. Warm-up  
          The warm-up is an opening activity which is basically meant to motivate the students and to lead them up to what follows. Adolescents as well as children appreciate well some sort of ice-breaking activities. However, teachers should be selective and purposeful in these activities. The latter should also meet the level of students. Peter Renner (1993) gives a piece of advice to teachers : « select your activity (ice breaking) with care. An exercise that works in one gorup may bomb in the next » (p.15). Therefore, teachers’ responsibility to accumulate warm-up activities and try to adapt them for their classroom environment.
3. Use of humor
   
        one aspect of class control and management, according to Fontana, is the use of humour in the classroom. To lower students’ inhibition, the teacher should be humourous. But far from being a clown, teachers should try to help students settled in, create a sense of security, and establish a lively atmosphere. During my teaching practice, I have worked hard on this point. I have never missed an opportunity without joking with my students. That has given them an appetite for learning. One of my students has written me the following note as feedback :
Monsieur le professeur :
« je veux vous dire que vous êtes un excellent professeur et surtout gentil professeur et amusant. En plus je préfère que tu m’enseignes toute la vie. Avec vous nous avons passé de très bons moments. Vous m’avez aimé la langue anglaise.
Merci, merci beaucoup. » (third year ECO student)
Indeed, humour is the strong chain which may relate a teacher ot his students. Joining them in their general laughter whenever suitable is an emblem of  security and group affiliation. Fontana states that « a sense of humour often ranks second only to fairness in child’s list of good teacher qualities »(p.330).
4. teachers’ attitude towards pupils’ errors
One of the most important problems in second language pedagogy is the matter of how and when to correct the errors of pupils. People with a long teaching experience have certainly encountered situations where they have difficulty locating the exact error committed by a student in an essay or in an oral communication. This implies that error is not always something that can be easily spotted. The major problem, however, is how to respond to students’ errors.
Broadly speaking the correction procedure  consists of two types. These are self correction and peer correction. These techniques give opportunities to students to interact with their peers so as to undermine the psychological barrier that blocks effective learning. Students should know that mistakes are not embarrassing but natural steps towards a good control of language. Teachers’ correction should be the last resort. It is worth mentioning that correction of errors depends on whether an activity is accuracy-based or fluency-based. If it is accuracy-based, language errors should be tactfully corrected. But if the activity is fluency-based, errors can be tolerated so long as the message gets across.  

The Translator Between the Text and the Culture

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No Translator can claim impersonal access to the textual, nor is it possible to translate in a social vacuum.” (Vermeer and Witte, 1990)


Written by: Mohamed Mahou


Translation, a process of rendering the meaning of one language into another, entails an awareness of the culture of these two languages. Indeed, translation does not function in a social vacuum as Vermeer and Witte point out1. It is actually culture-bound. In order to avoid misunderstandings, translators should resort to an integrated approach and they should be aware of their cultural responsibility. The major aim of the present paper, thus, is to reveal the importance of culture in translation. I will first state some problems faced while translating a text. Then I will focus on the effect of culture on translation and translators. I will finally tackle the cultural responsibility of translators.
  1. Problems in Translation
Most of the difficulties encountered in translation are due to the difference between the source language and the target language. When faced with culturally-bound expressions, for example, the translator is usually obliged to add or delete something over what is actually said in the original text. Though the influence is sometimes inevitable2, translators must be careful not to transfer idiosyncrasies of the source text into the new text, a factor which will shock the target reader. Claiming an impersonal access to the textual meaning of a translated text is, to be sure, impossible because a good translation always entails frames and framing. According to David Katan, “frames are a combination of prior knowledge, generalizations and expectations regarding the text. As the text is read so it is checked against expectations and degree of fit with other similar known or possible texts.”3 When attempting to reconstruct a text appropriately, translators are likely to face different problems, which may be divided into three categories:
  1. Linguistic problems:
They can be subdivided into three kinds of problems: semantic, syntactic and textual. Semantic problems appear when the translator tries to negotiate meanings within the source text. Syntactic problems, on the other hand, arise from differences in the features of arrangement and suprasegmental aspects of the two languages. Differences in cohesion, coherence, punctuation and divisibility of sentences are some textual problems that a translator may encounter when translating a text. Indeed, a contrastive grammar and a comparative of styles would be a great help while dealing with these problems.
  1. Pragmatic problems:
They arise when ignoring to check on one of the following extra textual factors: sender, receiver, medium, time, place, motive and text function
  1. Cultural Problems:
As it is stated above, translation takes place within a socio-cultural context. Because of the difference between the two cultures, some translators may find it difficult to interpret the norms and conventions of the target culture or they may impose their own cultural values on it. Some strategies are of value when tackling the component of culture in any translation.
  1. Dealing with Culture:
Rendering a text in the most appropriate way, translators, or to borrow one of David Katan’s terms mediators, are in need of two processes: decoding and encoding. By decoding it is often meant to dismantle the ideas of the source text whereas the encoding process necessitates finding a new code in the target text. Between the two processes the translator needs to analyze and frame his “grouped linguistic and textual knowledge.”4 Indeed, unlike the grammatical model that describes translation focusing on equivalent words, the cultural model takes the cultural aspect of the target text into account. The focus, according to the supporters’ of this model, is extensively on the importance of context. For them, translation is a form of cross-cultural communication.
Doing a cross-cultural translation appropriately depends on the translator’s understanding of the culture s/he is working with. When dealing with idioms, proverbs and metaphors, for instance, the translator has to replace the source text items by those known in the target culture. To illustrate my point, translating some Berber proverbs into English using a literal translation may appear odd to the English audience. Using equivalent English proverbs will surely be more legitimate and safer in this respect. Here are three examples:
1- Berber: Yan ibbi ulgmad ar ti tssiwid tzkirt
Literal Translation: The one bitten by a snake is afraid of ropes.
English equivalent: Once bitten, twice shy.
2- Berber: Imik s imik a sa ikccm uram s ugdur.
Literal translation: Little by little the camel enters the pot
English equivalent: Rome is not built on one day
3- Berber: Wanna yran tammnt isbr i tiqqrst n tizzwa.
Literal translation: The one who wants honey must bear bee stings.
English Equivalent: Every rose has its thorn.

Indeed, doing a cross-cultural translation entails mastering both the source culture and the target one. Being bicultural is one major characteristic of a good translator. The main objectives of translators, thus, are to avoid cultural misunderstandings and to achieve an appreciation of the source text. Resorting to footnotes or endnotes is one technique to be used to meet these goals. For example, when translating some God phrases that abound in Berber language, the translator should explain to the target reader that these phrases are used to express politeness and they reflect Imazighens (Berbers) strong link to Islam. As a very simple example, this God phrase “Ad k irhm rbbi ifqirn” may be translated literally as: “May God bless your old people.” But this translation is a bit awkward because the phrase “old people” (Ifqirn) refers actually to parents, not to the old people in general. So, a good translator should be aware of such cultural aspects of the target language. It is worth mentioning that a translator of the above-mentioned phrase should also use an endnote to stress the situations in which it is used. That is, stating that it is used when asking for a service/ information or when expressing gratitude to someone.
Clearly, a major problem for translators is usually facing non-equivalence. To solve the problem, David Katan suggests using a new model for working cross-culturally. He notes:
I would suggest here that translators, interpreters and others should use the Meta-model themselves to consciously locate the deletions, distortions and generalizations in the source text. Mediators should also be conscious of their own modeling strategy in the production of the target text.5
Indeed, finding the implicit and the absent in the source text is the overriding task of a translator. The implicit means what a translator makes explicit in the target text and the absent refers to things or concepts that are absent in the source text, but they are actually present in relation to the general situation which gave rise to the text. David Katan labels this absent with the phrase “the context of culture.” He states:

We mentioned earlier that a translator as cultural interpreter or mediator also needs to account for information that is implicit in the context of culture. We should also consider that the context of culture can be perceived at a number of different levels, from environment (e.g. institutions) to beliefs and values (cultural orientations) and identity. 6
Since non-equivalence seems to be a major “predicament” in translation, translators should mainly seek to achieve the communicative function of the target text. This function is achieved through the use of an integrated approach that takes the global vision of the text at hand as a starting point. The two levels of this approach are defined as follows: “At that higher level things are perceived holistically, as a single gestalt, while for identification at a lower level, specific details have to be picked out.”7Truly, the integrated approach brings to the forefront of concern the paramount importance of analyzing parts in order to have an appropriate translation. At the outset, a good translator reads his text several times, in doing so s/he grasps the linguistic knowledge of the text. Then s/he moves to the analysis of the situation. That is, the immediate environment of the source text that will help the audience understand the translated text. Finally the translator focuses on the cultural aspects raised in the work at hand; he should fully understand beliefs and values encoded in the text. Indeed, taking the text, situation and culture into consideration will certainly ensure credibility of the translated work in the eyes of the target reader.

  1. Cultural Responsibility of Translators
As technology develops and grows fast, nations and their cultures intersect in different ways. Translation, as a means of transposing thoughts and interpreting languages, is required to play an influential role in the current transcultural communication. Translators’ responsibility, thus, goes beyond the mere act of translating. They are not merely bringing about a linguistic translation, but they are also acting as experts in cultural transposition.
Sometimes translations may introduce negative views and aspects into the target culture. In their book, The Translator as Communicator (1997), Basil Hatim and Ian Mason state: “Text may thus be seen as carriers of ideological meaning, a factor which makes them particularly vulnerable to changing socio- cultural norms.”8. Additionally, translated texts may act as a reinforcer of the prejudices and clichés that exist about certain societies, especially the once-colonized. According to Said Faiq (2005), this job is done superbly both by the orientalists as well as by the “native foreigners”. While discussing some books written by Arab authors like Ben Jelloun and Mohamed Heikal, Faiq concludes:
Their writings, particularly in English and French, are taken by western cities as evidence that the stereotypes and clichés used to represent/ translate Arabs and Islam, as explained by Said (1997), were and still are true, and that the native foreigners only further confirm them.9
Along with the ideology underlying certain works, some translations may unconsciously misinterpret messages and cultures. This is mainly due to translators’ limited competence in one of the languages at hand or it is likely a result of the scarcity of documentation they are working with. Thus, translators are tasked to free themselves from ideology and make huge efforts to participate in merging cultures together.
Certainly, translations, when they are done appropriately, take on a significant role in drawing cultures together. Differences will be absorbed and tolerance will spread in the world. In fact, as Beekman and Callow suggest10, using a native source language speaker as a helper in translation is a sound technique. It will definitely minimize cultural misinterpretations; and it will eventually lead to cross-cultural understanding. Additionally, translators often participate effectively in the enlightenment of the readers of the target culture. Recently, I have watched some famous plays like Othello and Waiting for Godot performed using the Berber language. For the novelty-seeking Berber public, translating international plays and acting them out in their native language will certainly bring new cultural aspects into the Amazigh culture. In this regard, Larbi Mamouch, a Berber translator, affirms:
La traduction en amazighe permet … de développer l’éventail de sa poétique en « important » de nouveaux genres littéraires, comme le théâtre, la nouvelle, le roman, les formes poétiques modernes,… La littérature amazighe sera aussi enrichie par des motifs et des images poétiques nouvelles, qui viennent s’ajouter à celles déjà connues et en vigueur dans la tradition poétique et littéraire orale.11

  1. Conclusion:
In order to promote an inter-cultural awareness and to participate in the development of nations, translators should interpret cultures and messages correctly. The use of an integrated approach, that take the text, the situation and the culture as equally important components of any translation, will show that translators’ work is not done in a social vacuum; rather it is “mired” deeply in culture. Actually, a mere focus on the textual meaning will not contribute to a solidly understood translation and it will simply create cultural misunderstandings that will widen the gap among different societies.

Notes:
  1. See the quotation on the first page. ( Under the title) ( Vermeer and Witte, 1990)
  2. Said Faiq ( 2005) states:
When cultures cross and mingle through translation, these pasts come face to face and struggle for power and influence becomes inevitable.”
  1. Katan, David. Translating Culture: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators ( Manchester and Northampton: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999) p 169
  2. Ibid. p 169
  3. Ibid. p 169
  4. Ibid. p 177
  5. Ibid. p 169
  6. Hatim, Basil. Ian Mason. The Translator as Communicator. ( London and New York: Rouledge, 1997) p 127
  7. Faiq, Said. ed. Translation, Representation and Identity in Intercultural Communication. (American University of Sharjah, 2005) Vol XIV p 72
  8. It is cited in Katan, David. Translating Culture: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators ( Manchester and Northampton: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999) p 173
11- Moumch Larbi in intervied published in http://tirrawal.canalblog.com/archives/2011/01/28/20238791.html

Works Cited
  1. Hatim, Basil. Ian Mason. The Translator as Communicator. London and New York: Rouledge, 1997
  2. Faiq, Said. ed. Translation, Representation and Identity in Intercultural Communication. American University of Sharjah, 2005. Intercultural Communication Studies.Vol XIV
  3. Katan, David. Translating Culture: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators Manchester and Northampton: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999
  4. Mamouch, Larbi. la traduction en amazighe” . Interview with Mohamed Oussous. January 2011. http://tirrawal.canalblog.com/archives/2011/01/28/20238791.html

Three Thinkers and One Objective

 
The philosophical inquiry into ‘literature’ is as old as Aristotle and Plato. In a broad sense, most of the following approaches in the literary theory are a reaction or an extension of the views of these prominent Greek philosophers. One of the well-known reactions in the sixteenth century to the classical theory, founded by Plato and Aristotle, comes from Philip Sidney. In one of his seminal essays, entitled “Apology for Poetry”, Sidney shows his support to Aristotle’s theory while being critical to Plato’s stubborn views on ‘literature’. Indeed, a quick reading of some of their writings reveals both similarities and differences in their representation of reality, their views on historians and philosophers, and their appreciation of poetry.
Mimesis, or the representation of reality, is a common ground among the three thinkers. All of them claim that literary texts transcribe reality. For Plato, “ the real artist would be interested in realities.” He tries to imitate what he sees , hears and feels. But this artist is thrice removed from the truth. He fulfills such imitation of reality without being able to understand it. So, the poet gives an imitation of an imitation because the actual world is just an imitation. In a like manner, Aristotle’s specification of ‘ poesis’ is based upon its mimetic quality. He affirms that all poetic forms, such as epic, tragic and comic, contain some ‘truth’ about the world. In his Poetics, he contends” Art imitates nature.”In fact, he strongly believes that art means something better than reality. It offers images of the real world and it helps man’s working on the probable and the possible. In the sixteenth century, Sir Philip Sidney’s view support Aristotle’s. He confirms that poetry is an art of imitation. According to Sidney, the poet’s talents “stem from the fact that he is able to create from a pre-existing idea called the fore-conceit.” The poet participate heavily in the divine act of creation. Like Plato, he belives that the poet is a creator; he is inspired by muse. Similarities and differences are clear in their view of mimesis.
Their views on history and philosophy show obvious parallels and also striking differences. Plato emphasizes the importance of historians and philosophers because they are the ones who guard the young generations. Unsurprisingly, he gives them a special place in his ideal city. By contrast, history is negated in Aristotle’s theory. It is less important than poetry because it does not deal with the universal. History, according to Aristotle, deals with the particulars and acts as a boring-fact recorder that gives no room for imagination. In sharp contrast to the rational severity of Plato, philosophy for Aristotle is based on empiricism, that is, it deals with senses and experiences. Sidney, the great English poet and courtier, supports Aristotle’s views. In a similar fashion, he discounts historians because of “their old mouse-eaten records”. In his interesting essay, “ Apology for Poetry”, he states:
The historian, wanting the percept, is so tied, not to what should be but to what is, to the particular truth of things, and not to the general reason of things, that his example draweth no necessary consequence, and therefore a less fruitful doctrine.”
Along with his exclusion of history, Sidney views philosophy negatively. Philosophers’ texts, he claims, are replete with thorny arguments that are “so hard of utterance and so misty to be conceived.” The views of these three thinkers on history and philosophy are, indeed, linked to their conception of poetry.
A quick investigation of the value of poetry in their writings yields several points of agreement as well as some divergences. Plato’s main concern in his famous book, Republic, is to establish his own ideal city with law-abiding citizens. He excludes the poets in this city on the ground that they raise passions and feelings in their writings. They will thus disorient the young generation who are supposed to be obedient and well educated. Plato points out:
He (the poet) awakens and nourishes and strengthens the feelings and impairs the reasons.”
The second objection of Plato to poetry relates to the issue of morality. Poets, to Plato, are the source of immoral and unhealthy behaviors. The citizens of the ideal city are in need of good conduct and morally enlightened environment. The first direct retort to Plato’s theory comes from Aristotle. The latter, though he has never claimed that Plato is wrong, foregrounds the importance of poetry in a society. It has some truth and it gives both pleasure and knowledge to the masses. During Renaissance, Sidney’s view espouses Aristotelian theory. In his essay, “Apology for Poetry”, he defends the imaginative process of poets and confirms that poetry both teaches and delights. The poet, “the least liar”, teaches virtue and moves people to take good actions.
Plato, Aristotle and Sidney are highly respected thinkers, whose ideas are adapted or adopted by different theorists and critics. They will definitely continue to influence contemporary approaches and movements for years to come. Their views on history , philosophy and literature ( poesis) show similarities and differences. But the underlying objective behind their views is the manipulation and education of people; the ultimate aim indeed is to build good character and virtuous behavior. For Plato, this is done through philosophy and history; but, for Aristotle and Sidney, it is the affective power of literature and its rhetoric that will stop people from carping and going against the grain.